人们在认知中有哪些错误（人类在认知上的五十个偏差）

本文汇总50个认知偏差于此仅供立此存照和便于查询，它不仅具有英汉双语对照目录（纯文本版）的作用，而且，也便于有关各位不谋而合齐心合力逐条查全详细的每一条认知偏差英文来源的详解，进而，逐一完成详解。-融智学著作者邹晓辉

我在查阅某个认知偏差的时候，无意间看到马斯克转发的50个认知偏差，并感慨他自己读书的时候就不知道，因此，马斯克认为现在美国的中学生就应该都知道。我认为中国的大中小学生及其家长和老师们都应该知道，而且，要系统地理解，最好有追根溯源的详解。因此特别花力气花时间从国内外网站上找到了50个认知偏差的汇总海报图形版，把它们以纯文本的方式，做成英汉对照的双语文本汇总公益分享于此：

认知偏差是人们在知觉自身、他人或外部环境时，常因自身或情境的原因使得知觉结果出现失真的现象。典型表现有显著性偏差、生动性偏差等。社会知觉中，常见的刻板印象、晕轮效应等均为某种形式的知觉偏差。是个人知觉具有选择性的特征所致。

Cognitive bias is a phenomenon that people often distort their perceptual results due to their own or situational reasons when they perceive themselves, others or the external environment. Typical performance has significant deviation, vividness deviation and so on. The common stereotype and halo effect in social perception are some form of perceptual bias. It is caused by the selective characteristics of personal perception.

“认知偏差”一般可以使用认知行为疗法（CBT）进行调整。CBT是通过改变你不合理的思维模式与行为模式来减少你产生失调的情绪和行为，从而达到改善你心理问题的疗法。

"Cognitive bias" can generally be adjusted using cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT is a therapy to improve your psychological problems by changing your unreasonable thinking and behavior patterns to reduce your dysfunctional emotions and behaviors.

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基本归因错误

Fundamental Attribution Error

我们经常根据个性或性格来定义别人，但会用情境因素来帮自己开脱。

We often define others according to personality or personality, but we will use situational factors to help ourselves out.

例如：Sally上课迟到，肯定是她懒，你自己迟到，就是早上太忙乱。

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自私偏见

Self-Serving Bias

失败总是有原因的，⽽成功全是靠⾃⼰。

There is always a reason for failure, and success depends on it.

例如：觉得自己得奖是因为自己的工作努力，而不是靠别人的帮助和运气。但考试不及格，只是因为睡眠不足而已。【错误归因 自私偏见】

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组内偏爱

In-Group Favoritism

我们偏爱同一个圈子的圈内人，而不是圈外人。

例如：Francis跟你一个教堂，所以你喜欢他多过Sally。

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从众效应

Bandwagon Effect

随着越来越多的人接受某些理念、时尚和信仰，这些理念的影响也会随之壮大。

As more and more people accept certain ideas, fashions and beliefs, the influence of these ideas will grow.

例如：Sally觉得指尖陀螺对孩子挺好的，Francis也这么觉得。

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群体思维

Group think

希望团队保持一致与和谐，我们有时候会为了减少冲突去做一些不合理的决定。

We hope the team will be consistent and harmonious. Sometimes we will make some unreasonable decisions to reduce conflict.

例如：Sally想买冰激凌，Francis想买T恤，所以你建议买印冰激凌图案的T恤。

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光环效应

Halo Effect

如果你认为一个人具有某种积极的特质，那么这种积极的印象会溢出到他的其他特质中。反之亦然。

If you think a person has a positive trait, the positive impression will spill over to his other traits. vice versa.

例如：Taylor这么可爱，他肯定一点也不刻薄。

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道德运气

Moral Luck

由于一个好的结果，会提高人们对其道德地位的评价，反之亦然。

Because a good result will improve people's evaluation of their moral status, and vice versa.

例如：xx赢得了xx之争，那他们比输掉的人更有德行。

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错误共识

False Consensus

现实中支持我们观点的人要比我们想象中的少。

In reality, fewer people support our views than we think.

例如：所有人都是这么想的！

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知识的诅咒

Curse of Knowledge

一旦我们知道了某件事，我们就会假设其他人也同样知道这件事。

Once we know something, we assume that others also know it.

例如：Alice是一名教师，她很难理解新同学们看事情的⻆度。

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聚光灯效应

Spotlight Effect

我们会高估他人对自己外表及行为举止的关注程度。

We overestimate how much attention others pay to our appearance and behavior.

例如：Sally很担心大家会注意到她的冰激凌T恤有多丑。

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可用性启发法

Availability Heuristic

我们在做判断时，通常都依赖于当下脑海中出现的最直观的例子。

When we make judgments, we usually rely on the most intuitive Examples in our mind.

例如：选择品牌时，你通常会选择最近看到过广告的那家。

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防御性归因

Defensive Attribution

一件事故中，如果目击者与受害者经历相似，他们就会更少的责怪受害者，转而去攻击加害者。反之亦然。

In an accident, if the witness experiences similar to the victim, they will blame the victim less and attack the perpetrator instead. vice versa.

例如：Sally开车等绿灯时在车里玩手机被追尾。目击者Greg也会开车玩手机。所以他对撞了Sally的人大吼大叫。

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公正世界假说

Just-World Hypothesis

我们倾向于相信世界是公正的。因此，我们认为不公正的事是有原因的。

We tend to believe that the world is just. Therefore, we will think that there is a reason for injustice.

例如：Sally的钱包被偷了，看，她总因为T恤的事批评Francis，遭报应了吧。

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朴素现实主义

Naive Realism

我们相信自己观察到的就是客观现实；而其他人则是不理性，不知情或者有偏见的。

We believe that what we observe is objective reality; Others are irrational, uninformed or biased.

例如：我看到了这个世界的真相，其他人都很蠢。

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朴素犬儒主义

Naive Cynicism

相信自己观察到的是客观事实，而其他人以自我为中心的偏见比他们实际表现出来的更多。

Believe that what they observe is objective facts, and others have more self-centered prejudices than they actually show.

例如：这人对我好的原因，肯定是想从我这⾥得到点什么。

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福勒效应（又名巴纳姆效应）

Forer Effect (aka Barnum Effect)

我们很容易将我们的个性归结为模糊的陈述，即使它们适用于更为广泛的人。

It's easy to attribute our personalities to vague statements, even if they apply to a wider range of people.

例如：这个星座指南真的是太准了！

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邓宁-克鲁格效应

Dunning-Kruger Effect

你知道得越少就越自信。知道得越多就越不自信。

The less you know, the more confident you are. The more you know, the less confident you are.

例如：Francis自信地向大家保证，冰淇淋里绝对没有海带，海带也没有被用于乳制品行业。

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锚定效应

Anchoring

我们在做决定时非常依赖第一眼看到的信息。

We rely heavily on the information we see at first sight when making decisions.

例如：这东西现在是原价的50%，那肯定便宜了。

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自动化系统偏差

Automation Bias

我们依赖自动化系统，有时甚至过于相信，导致真正正确的决策被放弃。

We rely on automated systems and sometimes believe too much, leading to the abandonment of really right decisions.

例如：手机的自动纠错功能把 “its” 替换成了 “it’s”，于是假定“it’s”就是正确的。

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谷歌效应（又名数码健忘症）

Google Effect (aka Digital Amnesia)

我们经常会忘记在搜索引擎中很容易找到的信息。

We often forget information that is easy to find in search engines.

例如：那个电影的演员叫啥来着？我都查了8次了。

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阻抗理论

Reactance

当⾃由受到限制时，我们会产生不快，所以会做出一些反抗的行为来释放情绪。

When we are restricted, we will be unhappy, so we will make some acts of resistance to release our emotions.

例如：家长越让孩子去做作业，孩子越是不愿意做。

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确认偏差

Confirmation Bias

我们倾向于找到并记住能证实我们看法的信息。

We tend to find and remember information that confirms our views.

例如：用不完整的证据得出一个阴谋论，却忽略那些相反的论据。

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逆火效应

Backfire Effect

人的一个错误的认知被新信息推翻时，新信息与人原本的看法不符，反而会加深人对原本错误认知的信任。

When a person's wrong cognition is overturned by new information, the new information is inconsistent with the person's original view, which will deepen people's trust in the original wrong cognition.

例如：相信阴谋论的人会认为，新出现的证据都是伪造用来掩盖阴谋论的。

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第三人称效应

Third-Person Effect

我们会认为媒体对他人的影响比对我们自己更大。

We will think that the media has a greater impact on others than ourselves.

例如：你显然是被媒体洗脑了。

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信念偏差

Belief Bias

我们判断一个论点的⼒量，不是根据它支持结论的力度，而是根据我们自己认为结论的可信度。

We judge the quantity of an argument not by the strength of its support for the conclusion, but by the credibility of our own conclusion.

例如：Sally说她也支持你那个阴谋论，但她没有说出什么证据来。

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可获性层叠

Availability Cascade

因为我们对融入社会的需要，越被公开和重复讨论的事情，我们越会相信其真实性。

Because of our need to integrate into society, the more things are discussed openly and repeatedly, the more we will believe in their authenticity.

例如：糖果里藏了剃须刀片的故事广为流传，最终许多美国人不再在万圣节时提供自制糖果。

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衰落主义

Declinism

我们倾向于将过去浪漫化，并消极地看待未来，认为社会/机构总体上正在衰退。

We tend to romanticize the past and look negatively at the future, believing that society / institutions are generally declining.

例如：在我们的孩童时代，孩子更懂得尊重！例如唐朝很强大，清朝很腐败。

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现状偏见

Status Quo Bias

我们倾向于保持不变，即使是有利的变化也被认为是一种损失

We tend to stay the same, and even favorable changes are considered a loss

例如：即使某APP侵犯了Sally的隐私，她也不愿意换另一个这方面做得更好的试试。

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沉没成本谬误（又名承诺升级）

Sunk Cost Fallacy (aka Escalation of Commitment)

即使面临失败的结果，人们会因为前期的投入，会在这个注定失败的事情上继续投入。

Even in the face of failure, people will continue to invest in this doomed thing because of their early investment.

例如：“投入1分钱，就会再投1块钱！”（一不做，二不休）

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赌徒谬误

Gambler's Fallacy

认为某个事件未来的可能性会受到过去事件的影响。

Think that the future possibility of an event will be affected by past events.

例如：猜硬币已经输了9次了，下次应该能猜中。

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0风险偏差

zero-Risk Bias

我们更愿意将小风险降低到零，即使我们可以通过另一种选择来降低整体风险。

We prefer to reduce small risks to zero, even if we can reduce the overall risk through another option.

例如：“你应该买个保险服务”

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框架效应

Framing Effect

人们对一个客观上相同问题的不同描述导致了不同的决策判断。

People's different descriptions of an objectively same problem lead to different decision-making judgments.

例如：候选人获得45%的支持率将大获全胜；候选人获得45%的支持率让全国失望；

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刻板印象

Stereotyping

人们普遍认为，尽管没有关于个人的信息，但一个群体的成员将具有某些相同的特征。

It is generally believed that although there is no information about individuals, members of a group will have some of the same characteristics.

例如：那个留着精致小胡子的人肯定是个嬉皮士，估计还收集了一些黑胶唱片。

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外群体同质性偏差

Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

人们认为圈外人千篇一律，而自己圈子里的人各个不同。

People think that outsiders are the same, while people in their own circles are different.

例如：Alice不打游戏，她认为玩游戏的人都一样。

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权威偏见

Authority Bias

我们信任权威人物的意见，并经常受其影响。

We trust the opinions of authoritative figures and are often influenced by them.

例如：专家说这个可以这么做。

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安慰剂效应

Placebo Effect

如果我们相信某种治疗会奏效，它通常会产生很小的生理效应。

If we believe that a treatment will work, it usually has little physiological effect.

例如：Alice服用了安慰剂来止痛，结果疼痛真的减轻了。

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幸存者偏差

Survivorship Bias

我们看到的往往是幸存者的故事，因为未幸存者已无法发声。而我们很容易把看到的当作全部。

What we see is often the story of the survivors, because the survivors can no longer speak. And it's easy for us to take what we see as all.

例如：看到返航的战斗机机翼弹孔最多，得出战斗机机翼是被击中最多的部位。是事实被击中发动机的飞机已经回不来了。

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精神活动过速

Tachypsychia

我们对时间的看法取决于创伤、吸毒和体力消耗。

Our view of time depends on trauma, drug use and physical exertion.

例如：当差点被汽车撞到的时候，时间都慢下来了。（Example: Time slows down when you are almost hit by a car. ）

平时与非常时刻的时候，人们对于时间的感受是不一样的。受伤的时候，尤其是身体不舒服的时候，人们会觉得度日如年。相反，快乐的时候，人们又会觉得时间过得太快。体力消耗的时候，人们的感觉也和平时不一样。

（People's perception of time is different in normal times and in extraordinary times. When you're injured, especially when you're not feeling well, people can feel like they're going through years. Conversely, when they are happy, people feel that time flies too fast. People also feel differently when they are physically exhausted. ）

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琐碎法则（又名自行车棚效应）

Law of Triviality (aka "Bike-Shedding")

人们会对琐碎的问题给予不成比例的重视，同时又避免面对复杂的问题。

People pay disproportionate attention to trivial problems while avoiding complex problems.

例如：一个地方市政府花费了大量的时间去讨论自行车道和自行车棚的问题，而不是想办法帮助无家可归的人。(Example: One local council spends a lot of time talking about bike lanes and bike sheds, rather than finding ways to help the homeless. )

避重就轻。避实就虚。逃避困难。总是喋喋不休地讨论并做一些琐事。总是想救火队长及救火队员那样被动地忙着灭火。就是不去做重要的整体布局和规划安排，从而做防患于未然的事情。

（Avoid heavy for light. To avoid reality for virtual thing is false. Escape difficulties. Always chatter and do trifles for those things. Always busy putting out fires passively like fire captains and fire crews. It is not to do important overall layout and planning arrangements, so as to do things that prevent problems before they happen. ）

非常有意思的一对示例就是：谈自行车棚的时候大家都积极参与，而谈原子弹如何上天的事情众人都鸦雀无声。（A very interesting pair of examples: when we talk about the bicycle shed, everyone is actively involved, and when we talk about how the atomic bomb went to heaven, everyone is silent. ）

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蔡格尼克记忆效应

Zeigarnik Effect

比起已完成的任务，人们更容易记住未完成的任务。

People are more likely to remember unfinished tasks than completed tasks.

例如：Greg因任务清单上还没完成的一个任务而沮丧。（Example: Greg is frustrated by a task on his to-do list that has not been completed. ）

为什么或者样呢？我认为，完了也就完了，好了也就完了，没有什么遗憾或纠结了，自然也就容易淡忘了。反而是那些相当重要，而偏偏又还没有完成的人或事，让人们久久难以忘怀。例如，维特根斯坦晚期的著作，就有很多遗憾，中期维特根斯坦甚至还没有整理出来。再如，帮助过中期维特根斯坦的剑桥天才拉姆塞非常年轻就因病去世了，留下的遗憾更多。现在人们发现：这些未完成的创造似乎更具有价值！

（Why or what? I think it’s over when it’s over, it’s over when it’s done, and there’s no regrets or entanglements, so naturally it’s easy to forget.

On the contrary, it is those people or things that are quite important but have not yet been completed, which make people unforgettable for a long time.

For example, Wittgenstein's late writings have many regrets, and the middle Wittgenstein has not even sorted them out. Another example is that the Cambridge genius Ramsay, who helped Wittgenstein in the mid-term, died of illness at a very young age, leaving more regrets. Now people find out: these unfinished creations seem to be more valuable! ）

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宜家效应

IKIA Effect

人们更看重自己参与创造的东西。

People value more what they participate in creating.

例如：“你难道不爱这个花了我20美元的茶壶吗？它上面的涂绘可是我自己亲笔画的！”（For example: "Don't you love this teapot that cost me $20? I painted it myself!" ）

人们普遍重视自己的亲力亲为的事情及其结果。生活、学习、工作、娱乐、等等，只要是自己亲自参与过的事情，其印象就会非常深刻，因此，自然更加看重了。

（People generally value their own hands-on work and its results. Life, study, work, entertainment, etc., as long as they are things that they have personally participated in, their impressions will be very deep, so they naturally value them more.）

宜家的做法，即自己参与组装或建造的过程，总是让人有一种成就感。（IKEA's practice of being involved in the process of assembling or building it yourself always gives a sense of accomplishment. ）

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本·富兰克林效应

Ben Franklin Effect

如果我们已经帮了别人一个忙，那么我们更有可能帮他另一个忙。

If we have done someone a favor, we are more likely to do him another favor.

例如：Greg给Francis借了一支钢笔，等Francis又向Greg借5元钱时，Greg很爽快的就借了。（For example: Greg borrowed a pen from Francis, and when Francis borrowed another $5 from Greg, Greg readily borrowed it.）

这是一种习惯性反应。俗话说得好，习惯成自然。人们总是沿着习惯行事或思考，因为，习惯的就是最省劲的，也是最高效的。

（This is a habitual reaction. As the saying goes, habit becomes natural. People always act or think along habit, because habit is the least effort and the most efficient.）

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旁观者效应

Bystander Effect

周围的人越多，我们帮助受害者的可能性就越小。

The more people around us, the less likely we are to help the victims.

例如：当有人在斗殴中受伤时，围观的那群学生里没人去打报警电话。（For example: When someone was injured in a fight, no one in the crowd of students called the police.）

因为，人们都有一种侥幸的心理，或一种推卸责任人的习惯或思维定式，总以为自己不去，总有其他人会去，结果，往往是谁都没有去。

（Because people have a fluke mentality, or a habit or mindset of shirking the responsibility, they always think that if they don’t go, there will always be other people who will go. As a result, often no one will go.）

统统都只是旁观者。（All are just bystanders.）

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暗示感受性

Suggestibility

我们，尤其是儿童，有时会将提问者建议的想法误认为是记忆。

We, especially children, sometimes mistake the ideas suggested by the questioner for memory.

例如：“你从沙发上摔下来是在你妈妈打你之前还是之后？”（For example: "Did you fall off the couch before or after your mom hit you?"）

其实，这类提问的方式就是在暗示你跟着其思路去思考，目的就是在误导你的思维和记忆，尤其是让你产生错误的联系、联想和记忆。

（In fact, the way of asking this kind of question is to imply that you are thinking along the lines of its own, the purpose is to mislead your thinking and memory, especially to let you make false connections, associations and memories.）

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虚假记忆

False Memory

我们会把想象误以为是真实的记忆。

We mistake imagination for real memory.

例如：Greg确定Sally说了一个关于菠萝的笑话，但这个笑话其实是他自己想到的。（Example: Greg is sure that Sally made a joke about pineapples, but the joke was actually his own.）

把想象当作现实，是人们经常会做的一类事情。也就是说，人类具有一种能力，就是：幻想各式各样的事情，甚至，会把它们当作真实的事情，其实它们那仅仅只是我们的想象而已。

（ Treating imagination as reality is something that people often do. That is to say, human beings have the ability to imagine all kinds of things, and even take them as real things, in fact, they are just our imaginations.）

它们仅仅只是我们自己头脑里的虚假的记忆。（They are just false memories in our own minds.）

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潜隐记忆

Cryptomnesia

我们会将真实的记忆误认为是想象。

We mistake real memory for imagination.

例如：Greg以为去过墓地是他做的一个梦，实际上他真的去过墓地。（Example: Greg thought going to the cemetery was a dream, but he actually went to the cemetery.）

许多时候，尤其是时间长了之后，人们我玩会把真是的事情及其记忆误认为仅仅只是一个梦境。（Many times, especially after a long time, people will mistake the real thing and its memory for just a dream.）

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集群错觉

Cluster Illusion

我们在随机数据中发现模式和规律。

We find patterns and laws in random data.

例如：“你看那个云彩像不像你家的猫？”（For example: "Does that cloud look like your cat?"）

它其实仅仅只是一朵云彩而已，并不是其它任何你看起来像的任何动物或景物，仅仅只是集群错觉或幻觉。（It's really just a cloud, not any other animal or scene that you look like, just a cluster illusion or hallucination.）

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悲观偏见

Pessimism Bias

我们有时会高估坏结果的概率。

We sometimes overestimate the probability of bad results.

例如：水只剩下半杯了，啥都不会变好了。（For example: There is only half a glass of water left, and nothing will get better.）

其实，它足以帮助我们挺过最难熬的这一刻。然后，就有充足的水源。（In fact, it was enough to help us get through the toughest moment. Then, there is an ample supply of water.）

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乐观偏见

Optimism Bias

我们有时对好的结果过于乐观

We are sometimes too optimistic about good results

例如：水还有半杯呢，一切都会好起来的。(For example: There is still half a glass of water, and everything will be fine.)

实际上，很快就没有水了，要断供了。（In fact, there will be no water soon, and the supply will be cut off.）盲目乐观。（Blind optimism.）

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盲点偏见

Blind Spot Bias

人们不认为自己有偏见，还会觉得别人比自己更偏激。

People don't think they are biased, and they think others are more extreme than themselves.

例如：偏见多多，却说自己“我没有偏见！”（For example:There are a lot of prejudices, but I say to myself "I have no prejudice!"or "I have no bias!" ）

灯下黑。看不见自己的后脑勺。盲目自信。骄傲自大。等等（Dark under the lights. I can't see the back of my head. Blind confidence. proud and arrogant. etc）

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